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Journey
to America
Mass exodus from western European countries began in the mid-1800s as
a product of ecomomic hardship, famine, and religious pursecution.
Fueled by the industrial revolution and the need for an expanding labor pool, American steel, coal and glass
companies began recruiting laborers throughout Europe. As a result, many young,
single men left for America and promised opportunities. Some planned to work only a few months and return
home with their earnings, causing many to marry prior to departing. In these instances, brides were often left behind while the man worked
in America, living frugally to send money home. It was common
for Greek, Italian and Slavic men to depart in the spring, work several months, and return home for
Christmas. Immigration officials labeled these seasonal workers "birds of passage." Over
time, many began staying in America and sending passage for their families. During this period, over
thirty-four million Europeans arrived in to America.
Passage to
America, especially for immigrants from the
regions within the vast Austro-Hungarian Empire, such as Trentino,
was generally booked through ports at Le Havre or
Cherbourg. (The price for the trip from Trento to New York in the early 1900’s ranged
from 180 to 220 crowns.) Transatlantic steamship and railroad companies distributed
brochures and posters in many languages throughout the United
States and Europe to generate business. The brochures marketed America as a place of
opportunity and vast employment, as well as touting its overall
quality of life. In conjunction with its advertising, steamship companies like White-Star,
Cunard, Hamburg America, and La Compagnie Generale Transatlantique,
offered inclusive ticket packages (promoted by their agents
throughout Europe) that included transport of immigrants by rail
and steamship from their homes in Europe to their new homes in
America.
In general, immigrants were expected to reach
their port of departure at least one day prior to the departure
date. Before embarking, it was common practice for immigrants
to undergo an exhaustive medical examination carried out by
American doctors or steamship company employees. In some cases, the
immigrants were subjected to disinfectant baths and fumigation
of their baggage. Some companies
employed more stingent processing procedures. For example, La
Compagnie Generate Transatlantique, as part of their package,
transported immigrants by train from their homes to the company village at the
port of Le Havre. Once there, they were examined by company doctors, given an
antiseptic bath, short haircut, vaccinated, and quarantined for
several days prior to departure. Their luggage was fumigated with steam, destructive
process, prior to boarding. Similar port-side facilities were operated by Cunard in Liverpool,
Holland-America in Rotterdam, and Hamburg-America in Hamburg. It appears these intensive screening processes
were the result of American immigration policies and company liability, as steamship companies were
fined as much as $100 (after 1905) for each passenger rejected by
U.S. Immigration.
Detailed manifests of all passengers, from port to port, were gathered and kept by the steamship companies, as
required by U.S. Immigration regulations. Each manifest
sheet contained thirty names, with information on each
passenger such as his age, sex, occupation, country of
origin citizen, intended destination, whether he was in
transit or permanent, number of bags, port of embarkation, as well
as other information.
Crossing the Atlantic
In the first decade of the 20th Century, an Atlantic crossing
in an iron steamship took from six to twelve days. The
trip was long and arduous for most immigrants, as they were booked into
the less expensive steerage class, which usually cost around $25. This was
about two or three weeks wages for a coal miner.
Steerage compartments were located in the lowest decks; where the
ships steering controls and engines were also housed. Each steerage passenger was
assigned a numbered metal berth, a canvas or burlap mattress stuffed with
hay or seaweed, a life preserver which doubled as a pillow, and
a tin pail and utensils for meals, which were often served from a
huge tank. The bunks were typically stacked two high and
side by side. A compartment typically accommodated up to 400 passengers. The conditions were poor,
vastly improved from those of previous years. Ship built after 1910
replaced steerage class with third class, which consisted of
four-berth or six-berth cabins. Stewards served meals in dining
rooms, and the passengers had china and flatware.
In general, however, crossing
the Atlantic during the late 19th and early 20th
century was very rough. Reported problems included promiscuity, crowding, and the
lack of a separate dining room, which made it difficult apply
even the most elementary rules regarding hygiene.
As a
result to various accounts, in 1909, the Office for Labour Mediation of Rovereto published a “Guide for Trentino
emigrants to the United States”, in which was written:
«On board each ship there is one doctor for
every 700 emigrants, whose service is for free for any emigrant who
should fall ill during the crossing. However, since it often happens
that infectious diseases develop quite easily, due to the very large
number of emigrants and to the severe lack of space that forces
everyone to live at very close quarters, it is recommended that each
emigrant take the utmost care of his or her health. Therefore, do
not exert yourself at all prior to embarking. Also remember that
because personal cleanliness is of the greatest help in maintaining
the hygiene and health of the body, it is a very good idea not only
to take a bath before embarking but also to take several more while
on board. It is also necessary you take with you a small hand case
with spare underwear, that will prove extremely useful.»
With regard to passenger conditions, on July 29, 1904, La Voce Cattolica reported:
«Lately it seems that Italian emigrants are
not being treated too well by the crew on the French La Loraine
steam liner seeing that said crew consists of villainous, bossy,
arrogant and overbearing individuals who treat third class
passengers as if they were animals. It also seems that the food
emigrants receive is of poor quality.»
Arrival
Prior to 1890
and the construction of Ellis Island, individual states regulated immigration into the United
States. Castle Garden in the Battery (originally known
as Castle Clinton) served as the New York State immigration station. Approximately eight
million immigrants, primarily from Northern and Western Europe, passed through its doors during its years
of operation. These early immigrants were primarily English, Irish, German and Scandinavian, and constituted
the first large wave of immigrants to the United States. Throughout
the 1800's and the latter half of the 19th century, political instability, restrictive
religious laws and deteriorating economic conditions in Europe fueled the largest mass human migration
in world history. It soon became apparent that Castle Garden was ill-equipped and
unprepared to handle the growing number of arrivals. Additionally, corruption and incompetence
among the Castle Garden staff provided more impotence to close
the facility and start anew. As a result, in February 1890, Treasury
Secretary William Windom formally moved to close the Castle Garden facility.
Ellis Island
The Immigration Act of 1891 federalized immigration bringing it under the auspices o
f
the Treasury Department. Immediately following passage, the government
moved to construct a new federally-operated immigration station and subsequently chose Ellis Island. Located in the upper bay just off
the New Jersey coast, Ellis sat within the shadow of the Statue of Liberty, providing the fabled backdrop of the immigrant experience. Through the years of operation, the facility underwent several construction projects, enlarging the original 3.3 acre-complex to
27.5 acres. The expansion was mostly accomplished through landfill obtained from ship ballast and excess
earth from the construction of the New York City subway system. From 1892 to
1954, over twelve million immigrants entered the United States through the portal of
Ellis Island.
Prior to designation as the site of the first federal immigration
station, by President Benjamin Harrison (1890), Ellis Island endured a varied history. The local
Indian tribes called it "Kioshk" or Gull Island, while colonials knew it as Oyster Island, due to
its abundant oyster beds and shad runs. By the time Samuel Ellis became the
island's private owner in the 1770's, the island had been called Kioshk, Oyster,
Dyre, Bucking and Anderson's Island. Over time, Ellis Island developed from a
sandy isle that barely rose above the high tide mark, into a hanging
site for pirates, harbor fort, ammunition and ordinance depot (named Fort Gibson in honor of
a brave officer killed during the War of 1812), and finally an
immigration station.
The first immigration structure was built of
"Georgia pine" and opened on January 1, 1892. Annie Moore, a 15 year-old Irish girl,
accompanied by her two brothers, entered history and a new country as she was
the very first immigrant to be processed at Ellis Island (January 2). Over the next
62 years, more than 12 million were to follow through this port of entry. The original
structre, however, did not last long. On the evening of June 14, 1897, it
caught fire and burned to the ground. Although no lives were
lost, many years of federal and state immigration records, dating back to 1855,
burned with the pine buildings that failed to protect them. The United States
Treasury quickly ordered the immigration facility be replaced under one very
important condition. All future structures built on Ellis Island had to be fireproof.
On December 17, 1900, the new Main Building opened and 2,251 immigrants were
received that day.
While most immigrants entered the United States through New
York Harbor (the most popular destination of steamship companies), others landed in ports at
Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, San Francisco, Savannah, Miami, and New Orleans.
Ellis Island Experience
A immigrant's experience
at Ellis Island was shaped, in large
part, by their socio-economic status. Processing was distinguished by ticket class. Upon a docking, first and second class passengers
(who were not required to undergo the inspection process at Ellis Island)
underwent a cursory inspection aboard ship. The theory was that if a person could
afford to purchase a first or second class ticket, they were less likely to
become a public charge in America through medical or legal reasons. The government felt these
more affluent passengers would not end up in institutions, hospitals or become a burden
to the state. First and second class passengers would then disembark,
pass through customs at the piers, and were free to enter the United
States. Only those determined to be sick or having legal problems were sent to Ellis Island for
further inspection.
This scenario
was far different for steerage/third class passengers. These
immigrants traveled in crowded and often unsanitary conditions near
the bottom of steamships. They enjoyed few amenities
and often spent up to two weeks in thier bunks,
seasick from the rough Atlantic crossing. Upon arrival in
New York City, ships docked at the Hudson or East River piers. The
steerage and third class passengers were then transferred to a
crowded ferryboat, which the company chartered to carry them to
Ellis Island, where they underwent a medical and legal inspection.
Each passenger was provided a landing and medical inspection
card. The landing card was pinned to his lapel, listing the name of
the steamship, manifest sheet number, and passenger number. The
medical inspection card recorded each time the ship's doctor
examined the passenger, which was usually once a day.
Ellis Island
processed an average of 2,000 to 4,000 immigrants a day. On
March 27, 1907, when 16,050 passengers arrived in a twenty-four hour
period, thousands spent days waiting aboard their steamships in the harbor, and hours
waiting on ferryboats. Stephen Graham called the crowded ferry to Ellis a
"floating waiting room." Some passengers, particularly sick children, died on the ferries
in the freezing cold of the Hudson River. One doctor estimated that 30% of
children with measles died on the ferryboats.
After immigrants disembarked from their ferryboats onto Ellis Island,
 they were
shuffled upstairs to the south hall
in order to begin the inspection process. If an immigrant's papers were in order and he was in reasonably good health, the Ellis Island inspection process would last
approximately three to five hours. The inspections were conducted in the Registry Room (or
Great Hall), where doctors briefly scanned all entrants for obvious physical ailments. Doctors at
Ellis Island soon became very adept at conducting these "six- second physicals." According
to conjecture, by 1916, a doctor could identify numerous medical conditions (ranging
from anemia to goiters to varicose veins) by just glancing at an immigrant.
The ship's manifest log (that was completed at the port of embarkation) contained the
immigrant's name and his/her answers to twenty-nine questions. This document was used by
the legal inspectors at Ellis to cross examine the immigrant during the legal
(or primary) inspection.
If a doctor suspected
any abnormality, the immigrant's lapel was marked with a piece of
chalk: "B" for back, "C" for conjunctivitis, "Ct" for
trachoma, "E" for eyes, "F" for face, "Ft' for feet, "C" for goiter,
"H" for heart, "K" for hernia, "L" for lameness, "N" for neck, "P'
for physical and lungs, ‘Pg" for pregnant, or "S" for senility,
"S c" for scalp, and "X" for
mental illness. The most painful part of the exam came when the
doctor pulled the eyelids up and over a metal buttonhook to check
for trachoma, a highly contagious eye disease common in southeastern
Europe. Infected passengers were immediately sent to an isolation area in the hospital or
a quarantine station on Staten Island, and then deported. Marked immigrants were
detained in a holding area for a more detailed exam, which might lead to
quarantine or deportation. Some learned the trick of turning their marked coats
inside out.
If an immigrant passed the physical, he was sent to the Registry Hall, to await an interview
by a clerk. Immigrants were called to a multi-lingual clerk's desk in groups
of thirty, by their ship's manifest page number. As the clerk reviewed the
manifest, he asked the thirty immigrants one-by-one, often through a government
interpreter, if they had money and a job. The answer was not easy to give, noted
Fiorello LaGuardia, who was an interpreter on Ellis from 1910-12. If an immigrant said he had
no job, he could be deported on grounds of being a public charge, but if he
admitted to having a job waiting for him, he could be deported for violation
of the Alien Contract Labor Law of 1885. For some time, the question of how much
money was enough to get into America was left to the
clerk's discretion. In 1909, however, a $25 minimum per entrant was established.
If an immigrant answered to the satisfaction
of the clerk, he was sent to the currency exchange counter and then the railroad ticket counter,
if he did not already have a ticket. The immigrant could also send telegrams or
eat at the restaurant before exiting down the "Stairs of Separation." The stairs to
the right led to rail stations for immediate passage to various cities;
the center stairs led to detention areas; and the stairs to the left led down to
the ferryboats to New York City. On the ground floor one could arrange shipment of luggage,
although most carried their bags throughout the journey.
While only 2% of arrivals were deported, about
20% were temporarily detained because they were sick, without money,
or suspected of being a contract laborer or fugitive. Women
traveling alone were also detained until officials were assured they
would be safe on the streets. Over the years, Ellis Island provided
many services for detainees, struggling to enlarge and build
new facilities to accommodate the greater than anticipated influx of
new immigrants. Hospital buildings, dormitories, contagious disease
wards, and kitchens were all feverishly constructed. Once a week
movies were shown and detainees were allowed to exercise
on the roof. On an average day there were about 2,000 detainees at
Ellis, but only about 1,800 bunks. The overflow slept on wooden
benches in the hall.
Meals for detainees were charged to their steamship company. Around 1904
the restaurant concession was paid 5.5 cents for breakfast, 11 cents for lunch, and 8
cents for dinner. A typical breakfast included coffee, bread and butter; lunch consisted
of beef stew, boiled potatoes, bread, and pickled herring for Jewish
immigrants; and dinner consisted of baked beans, stewed prunes, bread, and tea. Crackers and
milk were provided for women and children.
Those awaiting deportation often
committed suicide, over 3,000 in Ellis Island's history. One could be deported for a
number of reasons: a medical condition such as epilepsy or
tuberculosis; physical deformity; insanity; felony or misdemeanor convictions involving moral turpitude; or
not having at least $25. Many were deported under the catchall, "likely to
become a public charge." A person marked for deportation could file an appeal with the
Board of Special Inquiry at the Island, and then with the federal court. The Board had
unique powers, as the Supreme Court (1893) had ruled that aliens had no inherent right to land
in America. The Board ultimately deported 15 to 20% of immigrants who appeared
before it.
Unfortunately, Ellis
Island was also known for corruption among its employees and some service providers. At times, corrupt currency exchange officials shortchanged immigrants, concession
operators served meals without utensils, and others operated schemes to deprive the newly landed immigrant
of their money. Other examples included a clerk failing to deliver money orders to immigrants,
resulting in their deportation, and baggage handlers charging twice the going rate.
Railroad ticket agents were not immune and often routed immigrants, not by the
most direct route to their destination, but by one that required a layover. Some
were forced to buy a fifty-cent or dollar bag of food from the restaurant
concession for their train trip. There were always a large number of clergy and
persons representing charities, boarding houses, and immigrant aid societies to
meet passengers as they disembarked on Ellis. Some boarding houses charged
excessive rates and abused guests. St. Joseph's Home for the Protection of
Polish Immigrants was accused of beating tenants with rubber hoses, exacting
exorbitant rents, and withholding money left with them for safekeeping. Women
taken in by the Swedish Immigrant Home disappeared, perhaps sold into slavery or
prostitution.
Not everyone on the Island, however, was
corrupt. Social workers helped immigrants find jobs and avoid unscrupulous labor
contractors who preyed on their own countrymen. Many of the forty immigrant aid
societies appearing on Ellis gave cards to passengers to facilitate their
travel. A typical card might read, "To the conductor: Please show bearer where
to change train and where to get off, as this person does not speak
English." They also helped locate lost luggage, cut red tape, contact
family members, and even gave money and clothing to immigrants.
Modern History
As the United States
entered World War I, immigration to the United States decreased. Numerous suspected
enemy aliens throughout the United States were brought to Ellis Island
under custody. Between 1918 and 1919, detained suspected enemy aliens were transferred from Ellis
Island to other locations in order for the United States Navy with the Army
Medical Department to take over the island complex. During this time,
regular inspection of arriving immigrants was conducted on board ship or at the docks. At the end of
World War I, the "Red Scare" spread across America and thousands of
suspected alien radicals were interred at Ellis Island. Hundreds were later deported
based upon the principal of guilt by association with
any organizations advocating revolution against the government. In 1920, Ellis Island
finally reopened as an immigration receiving station.
From the very
beginning of the mass migration that spanned from 1880 to 1924, an
increasingly vociferous group of politicians and nativists demanded
increased restrictions on immigration. The laws that followed,
were an attempt to preserve the ethnic flavor of the "old
immigrants", those earlier settlers primarily from Northern and
Western Europe. Laws and regulations such as the Chinese Exclusion
Act, the Alien Contract Labor Law and the institution of a literacy
test were initially imposed, but barely stemmed the tide of new
immigrants. Between the 1921 passage of the Quota Laws and 1924
implementation of the National Origins Act, the flood of immigrants
finally reached a crescendo. These restrictions, based upon a
percentage system according to the number of ethnic groups already
living in the United States as per the 1890 and 1910 Census, had a
dramatic effect on immigration and the work of Ellis Island.
In addition, the emergence of the United
States as a world power after World War I and the resulting expansion, further lessened the need for the services provided at Ellis Island. United States embassies
were established in countries all over the world, and prospective immigrants now
applied for their visas at American consulates in their countries of
origin. The necessary paperwork was completed at the consulate, as well as a
medical inspection. After 1924, the only people who were detained at Ellis Island
were those who had problems with their paperwork, as well as war refugees and
displaced persons.
Although Ellis Island remained open for many more years, it served a multitude of purposes. During World War II, enemy merchant
seamen were detained in the baggage and dormitory building. The United States
Coast Guard also trained about 60,000 servicemen there. In November of 1954 the
last detainee, a Norwegian merchant seaman named Arne Peterssen was released,
and Ellis Island officially closed.
In 1965, President Lyndon Johnson declared Ellis Island part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Ellis
Island was opened to the public on a limited basis between 1976 and 1984.
Starting in 1984, Ellis Island underwent a major restoration, the largest
historic restoration in U.S. history. The $160 million dollar project was funded
by donations made to The Statue of Liberty - Ellis Island Foundation, Inc. in
partnership with the National Park Service. The Main Building was reopened to
the public on September 10, 1990 as the Ellis Island Immigration Museum. Today,
the museum receives almost 2 million visitors annually.
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